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This fact sheet outlines the principles and strategies that promote the creation of safer communities. The concept of Safer Design (also known as Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design – CPTED) forms the basis of this fact sheet. Firstly the need to feel safe in a community and definitions of Safer Design are discussed, followed by an outline of the historical development of the concept of CPTED. The three main Safer Design principles are explained, followed by strategies used to implement these principles in developments. The benefits of implementing Safer Design strategies and the costs and monetary savings attributed to them are discussed, as well as the risks associated with Safer Design and the barriers needed to be overcome in order to promote the concept. Finally, the actions that need to be taken and mechanisms that need to be in place in each of the phases of the development in order to plan, create, construct and deliver a safer sustainable community are outlined.

“Opportunity makes a thief”
Source: Francis Bacon (1561 – 1626)

Definition of Safer Design

Safety in developments and communities is a fundamental social issue. Crime is a major problem in our society and is caused by personal, economic, social and opportunity factors. Crime can have far reaching effects. It can generate fear within a community, which can in turn have a strong influence on people’s freedom of movement and participation in the community. Some societal groups are especially vulnerable to crime and fear of it, such as the elderly, women and teenagers.

Standard and typical practice to prevent crime in neighbourhoods in Australia is the installation of stark physical elements i.e. high walls, barbed wire on the top of fences, direct signage etc. Sustainable communities aim to go beyond standard practice toward good and best practice by using elements of the natural built environment in a subtle manner to influence people’s behaviour in it. This concept is best known as Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design (CPTED).

Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design is the concept, that features of the natural and built environment can be designed so as to reduce the opportunity for crime or undesirable behaviour, thereby increasing the community’s perception of safety.

“No crime can occur without the physical opportunities to carry it out”
Source: Felson and Clarke (1998)

“CPTED” and Safer Design” are the commonly used terms in Australia. “Secure by Design” is the term used in the United Kingdom and “CPTED” is the term used in the United States.

The implementation of Safer Design principles is widespread overseas in Europe and the United States and, though not commonly known or practiced in Australia, is gaining recognition.

The context for Safer Design is the physical environment for legitimate users of the space, the physical, psychological and social needs of these users, and the predicted behaviour of legitimate users and intruders using the space.

Safer Design can be distinguished from typical physical strategies to reduce crime. Safer Design uses environmental factors to affect the perceptions of the users of the space, aiming to promote the feeling of safety amongst users as well as to achieve a reduction in crime. Safer Design strategies incorporate psychological ideas and are based on the relationships between people and the physical environment. Safer Design relies on the different ways in which people react to features of the environment. For example, good lighting makes normal users of the space feel safe, but it discourages illegitimate users of the space from displaying undesirable behaviour or from carrying out crimes.

Safer Design principles can be very effectively integrated into the design of urban spaces, town centres, transport hubs, schools, shopping centres, entertainment areas, offices, subdivisions, medium and high density residential areas, parks and open spaces and sporting, community and recreational facilities.

It is widely acknowledged that there are a large number of stakeholders that can play an important role in enhancing the safety of their community by participating in the implementation of Safer Design principles. These include local government representatives, urban planners, police, developers, environmental designers, the community (Neighbourhood Watch) and community agencies and organisations.

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Background to Safer Design

The underlying principles and strategies relating to Safer Design can be traced back hundreds of years. The more contemporary concepts of Safer Design have been developed in the last 40 years by professionals from a range of different disciplines.

In the 1960s Elizabeth Wood emphasised the use of design features to promote surveillance when developing guidelines for the Chicago Housing Authority. Jane Jacobs criticised the contemporary urban planning principles of the 1960s, arguing that the isolation of neighbourhoods and reliance on the private car was reducing the stewardship and surveillance of spaces as well as the ability of the community to form social networks. She proposed three elements that were required to reduce the opportunity for crime; diversity of uses, a high degree of pedestrian activity and the delineation of public and private spaces. Schlomo Angel, an urban planner, argued that crime was inversely proportional to the level of activity on the street.

In the early 1970s criminologist C. Ray Jeffrey coined the phrase “Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design”. He developed theories relating to the prevention of crime, but did not mention the influence of the physical environment. Concurrently architect Oscar Newman was developing an approach called “defensible space”. Newman asserted that defensible space that facilitates people to see and be seen simultaneously allows them to feel safe as they know that intruders can be potentially observed, identified and apprehended. He also believed that increasing the sense of ownership of a space encourages social interaction and increases the likelihood of intervention in the event of a crime occurring. In C. Ray Jeffrey’s 2nd edition of “Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design” (1977) he further developed his theories to include the physical environment, advocating that the behaviour of members of the community and offenders have a reciprocal effect on each other and that the physical environment can be modified to predict or prescribe behaviour.

In the 1980s James Q. Wilson and George L. Kelling noted the negative effect of neighbourhood neglect on behaviour and the maintenance of property and spaces became a key dimension of Safer Design strategies.

In the 1980s Donald Perlgut asserted that the scope of “defensible space” was too limited and that it should be extended to include the role of management in promoting security. He believed that the two most important “manageable space” strategies to reduce the opportunity for crime are the development of management policies and practices, and the creation of a physical environment that facilitates management by residents. Perlgut also advocated the design of spaces that welcome people and the participation of residents in the design process.

In the 2000s knowledge of Safer Design principles greatly increased internationally, with law enforcement agencies, planners, local government and architects adopting and implementing these principles.

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Safer Design principles

The main Safer Design principles are:

• access control
• surveillance
• territorial reinforcement

Access control
The aim of this principle is to reduce the opportunity for criminal and undesirable behaviour to take place by denying access to the object of the crime and by creating a perceived risk to the perpetrator. This concept can be implemented in the design of buildings or spaces through natural strategies (e.g. limiting access, controlling flow and defining entrances, exits and boundaries between public and private spaces), through mechanical strategies (e.g. the installation of gates, locks, lighting, landscaping) and/or through organised strategies (e.g. the use of security guards).

Photo: Security screen door

Surveillance
The objective of this principle is to create opportunities to place potential intruders under observation so that they perceive that there is a risk to themselves of being detected by the normal users of the space. This principle can be achieved by creating an environment that allows people to see and be seen, and by placing limitations on movement and the possibility of escape. It can be implemented in the built environment through natural strategies (e.g. optimising sightlines, locating open and public areas where they are overlooked by the private spaces of the normal users of those spaces, facilitating positive social interaction amongst normal users), through mechanical strategies (e.g. the installation of security cameras) and/or through organised strategies (e.g. the use of security guards or police).

Photo : Security camera

Territorial reinforcement
This principle aims to make the normal users of the building or space feel safe through a feeling of ownership of that space, and to make any potential intruders aware that there is an increased risk of scrutiny as the space is controlled. If people have a vested interest in a space, they are more likely to identify offenders, report undesirable behaviour or intervene in a crime. This design concept can be implemented through natural strategies which define the boundaries of and transition between public, semi-private and private spaces (e.g. low fencing, ground level changes, surface changes).

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Safer Design strategies

A range of Safer Design strategies are outlined as follows:

Diversity of use and activity generation
A space that accommodates a number of uses and activities and that has the potential to be used at all times of the day and night, increases surveillance of the space and promotes ownership of it thus creating the perception of safety through continued use. The generation of activities that draw people to the space increases its use and creates places of casual surveillance. For example, the location of a street café in a commercial/light industrial area attracts patrons to an otherwise quiet neighbourhood.

Photo: Street café as an activity generator in a park.

Entrapment spots
Recessed areas and confined places where people may be detained or entrapped i.e. areas that are confined on three sides by physical barriers (e.g. by fences, landscaping) should be eliminated by designers of buildings and urban spaces. These hidden alcoves make people feel vulnerable and can facilitate the perpetration of crimes or undesirable behaviour.

Photo: Entrapment spot in a laneway

Landscaping
Landscaping can be used to delineate an area as a public or private space, thereby promoting territorial reinforcement and increasing the perception of safety of the space. The landscape features can be hard (e.g. hard surface pathways, seating, walls) or soft landscaping (e.g. ground cover, lawn, shrubs, hedges).

Photo: Landscape barrier between public and private space

Lighting
The adequate provision of lighting for a space ensures that people can see and can also be observed. Good lighting design reinforces legitimate activities and increases the perception of detection and risk of exposure for offenders. The lighting design should illuminate safe routes and higher risk areas, eliminate shadows and glare and be pedestrian scale with the light directed downward.

Photo: Lighting illuminating safe routes in a park

Maintenance and management
Neglect, such as litter and graffiti, leads to poor use of a space and is an indication of greater tolerance of disorder. Well maintained spaces give the perception of ownership and encourage active use, thereby deterring crime. Ensuring that a building or space is clean and well maintained and managed will encourage users of the spaces to treat it with respect.

Photo: Well maintained residence

Movement predictors
The provision of single directional paths that are predictable and offer no choice to their users can prescribe the user’s movement. Paths should always offer a choice to users as it offers them a possibility of escape if required.

Photo: Choice of paths in a park

Sightlines
The presence of unimpinged views across open spaces and approaches to it facilitates casual surveillance of those spaces. Users can see what lies ahead and there is the opportunity for others to come to their aid as they are visible. Care should be taken in the location and design of buildings and open spaces, with particularly emphasis on visibility in high risk areas such as carparks and underpasses. Landscaping should be designed to optimise sightlines.

Photo: Permeable bus shelter

Way finding
The provision of signage and visual cues facilitates navigation for the user. They convey a sense of place, encourage legitimate use of the space, making inappropriate use of it evident. Cues can be literal (signs) or symbolic (change in surface materials).

Photos:
Map for way finding
Changes to ground surfaces indicating appropriate use
Bollard indicating pedestrian use only.

Secure design
All buildings and urban design objects (e.g. lighting, rubbish bins) should be secure and as vandal-proof as possible. All windows and doors should have locks. Care should be taken in the selection of window and door types (e.g. security flyscreens) and hardware (e.g. locks). The installation of alarms should be considered.

Photo: Durable rubbish bin

Space ownership
Space boundaries need to be defined as public or private and the intended use of the space needs to be clear. The stewardship of a space by owners and users of the space encourages people to take responsibility for it and to protect it.

Photo: Street café boundaries are defined by low fencing

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Safer Design implementation - neighbourhoods

The section below outlines how Safer Design principles can be integrated in a practical manner into existing or new developments. Safer Design initiatives should be considered for implementation in the planning, design and construction of master plans, town centres, neighbourhoods, urban spaces, public facilities, parklands and open spaces, public transport routes, walking and cycling paths, car parking, buildings, lighting and signage.

Neighbourhoods

• Provide a diverse and vibrant mix of activities that promotes day and night time uses. For example, apartments, offices, shops, cinemas, bars, restaurants.
• Encourage diversity and range of household types as there is a greater potential for people to be present throughout the day and night.
• Encourage commercial and home based business activity in residential areas to increase surveillance over adjacent public spaces.
• Avoid gated communities that are physically isolated from the wider community.
• Avoid long blank walls, hoardings etc. with no openings or activity.
• Locate small businesses on the perimeter of larger developments (e.g. supermarkets and malls) to generate activity.
  
  
• Encourage active uses on the edges of car parks, laneways and along main roads to promote a sense of activity and safety throughout the day and night time.
• Design out entrapment spaces, such as hidden recesses, where intruders could hide or entrap people.
• Design spaces that encourage people to visit or gather and assume guardianship over e.g. install a community mural.
  
  
• Physically connect the street layout of new developments to existing neighbourhoods. The street network should be legible, easily navigable with visible alternative routes and accompanied by an integrated network of pedestrian and cycle routes.
• Avoid long culs-de-sacs (where you cannot see the end) as they obscure sightlines, reduce accessibility and increase walking distances.
  
  
• Public transport (e.g. light rail) integrated with mixed use development generates day and night time activity and promotes natural surveillance.
• Provide waiting areas for public transport that are clearly visible from nearby buildings and the street or public domain.
• Where possible avoid pedestrian underpasses. Where unavoidable, ensure that they are wide and well-lit.
• Avoid back fences on to pedestrian paths and cycleways. Paths should be overlooked by neighbouring properties.
  
  
• Encourage people to frequent parks and open spaces by designing comfortable shaded seating, sightlines to views and a variety of activities.
• Design parks and open spaces to be clearly visible from the surrounding streets and properties. Avoid the rear fences of properties backing on to parks.
  
  
• Use landscaping and other urban design features (signage, bollards, walls, paving changes) to channel pedestrians into designated activity areas, to define boundaries and to show intended use and ownership.
• Ensure that vegetation and landscaping does not obscure sightlines or create entrapment spots.
• Co-locate public facilities, such as Automatic Teller Machines (ATMs), public phones, drinking fountains and public toilets in highly visible and well trafficked locations.
• Install durable vandal-proof materials, fixtures and fittings.
• Lighting should be carefully designed to promote safety, enhance visibility and be at the appropriate scale (e.g. for pedestrians or for cars).

Photos:
Street scale lighting
Pedestrian scale lighting
Vandel proof lighting

• Use clear and legible signage to assist people to interpret their surroundings.
• Ensure that streets, public urban spaces and parks are clean and well-maintained. Ensure that any graffiti or rubbish is removed quickly.
• If appropriate, install Closed Circuit Television (CCTV) and ensure that it is visible, but does not compromise visual amenity. CCTV should only be installed in conjunction with other crime reduction measures.

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Case Study - The Bridges Shopping Centre

The Bridges Shopping Centre is located in Sunderland in the United Kingdom. The shopping centre originated in the early 1970’s and has since been upgraded and extended several times. The Bridge Centre has a number of Safer Design features and initiatives that have been integrated into its re-development, including:

• Permeable connections through the shopping centre to existing neighbourhoods;
• Only three entrances/exits from the shopping centre on to existing street networks;
• Three residential tower blocks located adjacent to the shopping centre which overlook it, promoting natural surveillance and contributing to the twenty-four hour activity of the public domain;
• The installation of skylights to promote natural daylighting, creating a bright, well-lit atmosphere;
• Repeated placement of the Bridges Centre logo, reinforcing its ownership and status as a controlled space;
• High profile security system, including the presence of security staff and police patrols and the installation of CCTV; and
• A management regime entitled ShopWatch.

Source: Home Office, UK - Crime Reduction

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Case Study - Kelvin Grove Urban Village

Kelvin Grove Urban Village is located two kilometres north-west of Brisbane’s CBD. The planned 16.57ha village has a projected population of around two thousand people. Project partners, the Queensland Department of Housing and Queensland University of Technology (QUT), are guiding and overseeing the development of the community to ensure that it is integrated and fulfils the sustainability vision. The Kelvin Grove Urban Village master plan incorporated many Safer Design initiatives including:

• Connection of the new street layout to the surrounding existing neighbourhoods;
• Prioritised pedestrian movement;
• Development of a mixed use community that integrates university and other institutional buildings into the neighbourhood;
• Diversified housing mix, including student accommodation, affordable housing, owner/investor apartments, aged care and home/office accommodation;
• Active street frontages;
• Adjacent buildings overlooking the public domain for natural surveillance; and
• Developers of sites within the Village are required to address Brisbane City Plan CPTED planning scheme policy.

Source:
http://www.kgurbanvillage.com.au
http://www.housing.qld.gov.au/

Lochiel Park in South Australia also used elements of safer design to reduce the likelihood of crime in public spaces.

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Safer Design implementation - homes and businesses

• Ensure that buildings on corner lots address both street frontages.
• Design buildings with active facades (e.g. balconies) that contribute to the natural surveillance of the street and public domain.
• Ensure that the more active rooms in the building, such as the living room or kitchen, overlook the street and public domain, contributing to the natural surveillance of pedestrian and vehicular movement.
• Locate a semi-private space between the street or public domain and the private home or business e.g. verandah, front yard, forecourt etc.
• Ensure that stairs, ramps and lift entrances are highly visible and connected to the street.
• Provide an entry to the building that is secure, well lit, well defined and clearly visible from the street.
• Install main entry doors with a viewing port to facilitate identification of visitors.
• Numbering and signage for homes and businesses should be clearly visible from the street.
• Avoid high walls and closed fencing as permeability encourages natural surveillance.
• Use landscaping features, walls, paving etc. to delineate public, private and semi-private spaces.
• Ensure that trees, garages, carports, balconies, lattice, bin storage, walls, fencing etc. cannot act as a “ladder to upper storeys of the building.
• Ensure that landscaping does not obscure the sightlines of roads, public paths, building entries etc.
• Backyards should be designed back to back with others to promote privacy and security.
• Ensure that roofing tiles, skylights etc. cannot be easily removed.
• Design out entrapment spaces, such as hidden recesses, dark corners and narrow walkways, where intruders could hide or entrap people.
• Install appropriate locks to the doors and windows.
• Install infrared security lights to access and egress points on the site and building to illuminate potential offenders.
• Install a security alarm and display security system notices prominently.
• If appropriate, install a security camera.

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Case Study - Research House

Research House is located in Rockhampton, Queensland and was opened in 2001. The project involves the sustainable design, construction and monitoring of a four-bedroom house based that is occupied by a family of two adults and two teenagers.

The Departments of Housing and Public Works are working with Central Queensland University and Queensland University of Technology (QUT), to investigate whether the design, technology and materials installed in the house are optimising its sustainability performance in operation, particularly in energy and water efficiency, indoor air quality and ventilation. A number of Safer Design initiatives have been integrated into Research House, such as:

• Low landscaping and planting to eliminate potential hiding spots and to promote permeability;
• Living room windows that overlook the street, promoting casual surveillance;
• Stainless steel mesh security screens to all external doors and windows;
• External door deadlocks;
• Viewing port in main entry door to facilitate identification of visitors;
• Self-latching key-locked access gates to the rear and side gates of the property;
• External movement sensor lights fitted to soffits; and
• Electronic surveillance and alarm system, which operates the lights, internal motion sensors and smoke and security alarms. There is also a panic switch located in the main bedroom which turns on all of the internal and external lights in case of emergency.

Source: Queensland Government

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Key Issues

Benefits

A major benefit of implementing Safer Design principles in a development is an attractive, well designed and clearly defined environment and improved quality of life for the community. A desirable place to live is created where residents and users feel safe, comfortable and happy.

Studies have proven that Safer Design is effective in reducing the opportunity for crime as well as increasing the perceived risk to offenders, whilst simultaneously increasing the community’s perception of their own safety.

Research has shown that implementing Safer Design principles can reduce levels of crime and disorder.

Research shows that Secured by Design can reduce burglary and car crime by 50% and criminal damage by 25%. It supports one of the Government's key planning objectives - the creation of secure, quality places where people wish to live and work.
Source: http://www.securedbydesign.com/

Once Safer Design features are installed they are permanent and, whilst they may require some maintenance, do not require a large amount of ongoing investment as do victims of crime (e.g. in the form of support personnel or programmes).

Community involvement in the planning, design and implementation of Safer Design principles can encourage community interaction and spirit through a sense of shared ownership and responsibility.

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Risks

Some people believe that Safer Design just displaces people to other areas to commit crimes.

Particular care must be taken during the implementation of Safer Design features that the privacy of individuals is not compromised, particularly in residential developments though overlooking of private spaces.

There is a risk that Safer Design principles can be taken too far. For example, the extensive use of security cameras and Closed Circuit Television (CCTV), and the creation of gated communities. The opportunity for crime is significantly reduced in them, but so is the freedom of movement and social interaction of the residents. In a sustainable community a balance would be struck between security and quality of life and between practicality and aesthetics.

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Savings

As outlined above, initial capital outlay for Safer Design features can be cost-effective as in the long term costs typically resulting from crime will be saved.

The implementation of Safer Design features lowers the liability for owners and managers of buildings, spaces and developments. Safer Design can enhance the profitability of businesses i.e reduce the losses incurred through crimes committed.

If correctly designed, Safer Design features can result in operational cost savings. For example, effective location of lighting and luminaire design can result in reduced energy use. If the opportunity for crime is reduced, there will be less expenditure required for maintenance (e.g. graffiti removal) and management (e.g. reduced need for security guards).

Safer Design features, once introduced, are permanent and do not need extensive ongoing investment, as do victims of crime.

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Costs

There can be upfront higher capital costs associated with the implementation of Safer Design principles in a building, urban space or development, whether new or existing. For example, the fees to engage an environmental designer, the costs associated with undertaking stakeholder consultation and the capital costs of design features and hardware. However, costs (to the home or business owner, community etc.) will be saved in the long term when weighed up against the direct cost of crime.

Inexpensive programs like Neighbourhood Watch can support Safer Design practice.

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Barriers

There is a general lack of knowledge of Safer Design principles on the part of planners, urban designers, architects, local government, developers and the community which is limiting the implementation of Safer Design principles. More education and awareness raising is required. Local government approval rarely requires it as part of a master plan or development application, developers do not request it and architects do not adequately recognise their role in security planning or community consultation.

A typical barrier is the prevalence of maintaining the status quo and resistance to change. Collaboration between a number of stakeholders is required to successfully implement Safer Design. This is improving with a growing emphasis on an Integrated Design process in the design and development industry.

Another barrier is the perception that Safer Design is a single approach that displaces traditional methods that will prevent crime, rather than an approach that is complementary to traditional design aiming to reduce the opportunity for crime.

Many existing buildings, spaces and neighbourhoods were not designed according to Safer Design principles. Thus the cost to retrofit Safer Design initiatives is a significant barrier to its uptake.

A perceived risk is that some people believe that the implementation of Safer Design and the careful design of the physical environment is no substitute for improved social services, such as education, day care etc.

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Benchmarks

The International CPTED Association (ICA) has an accreditation process to certify CPTED practioners. Accreditation (either basic or Advanced ICA Certified CPTED Practitioner) can be achieved through noting details of work experience in a Record Book, demonstrating competence in core and elective subjects and by undertaking a CPTED certification exam (oral or written). See http://www.cpted.net/ for more details.

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Development phase actions

Feasibility

Safer Design initiatives need to be embedded throughout the development process of an urban or open space, building or development to ensure successful outcomes. The actions outlined below consist of actions that need to be taken in each phase of the development in order to plan, create, construct and deliver a safer sustainable community. Stakeholder consultation is essential and should be undertaken at every phase of the development.

At the feasibility phase the following actions are required:

• Assess the site proposed for development in terms of the opportunities for the implementation of a Safer Design strategy, site constraints, risks, liabilities, existing features etc.
• Undertake research into the crime rates and types in the locality and the safety needs of the local community.

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Planning

• Once the land is purchased, facilitate stakeholder participation in the Safer Design planning process.
• Commence an integrated planning process. Ensure communication and collaboration between developers, local government authorities, architects/urban/environmental designers and the community to identify and address Safer Design issues.
• Undertake a site assessment and safety audit with the aim of evaluating the physical environment and human initiatives to mitigate actual or perceived risks and safety issues.
• Consider planning, design and layout at an early stage to ensure that any conflicts with safety are resolved. This will reduce potentially costly retrofitting.
• If appropriate, develop planning controls that incorporate Safer Design guidelines for the development e.g. Development Control Plans (DCPs).
• Undertake preliminary cost planning for Safer Design initiatives.

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Design

• Facilitate community and stakeholder participation in the design process.
• Facilitate an integrated design process involving the developer, design team, local planning authority and the community.
• Refine the Safer Design strategy.
• Ensure that the Safer Design strategy is carried through from the planning phase to the design phase and the micro level of pathway design, lighting, signage etc.
• Engage an experienced or certified professional to peer review the proposed plans.

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Construction

• Ensure that the Safer Design initiatives are installed as envisaged in the design phase.

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Lot Creation

• Educate and advise prospective home buyers, business owners, tenants etc. on the Safer Design initiatives that are integrated into the development.

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Completion

• In order to ensure that lessons are learned from the project for future projects, there should be a proper handover for all concerned parties, including the developer, design team, builder, site manager etc. Any useful feedback regarding the Safer Design initiatives should be communicated.
• Undertake a Post Occupancy Evaluation (POE) between six and nine months after practical completion to determine the success of the Safer Design strategy.

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Angel, S 1968, “Discouraging Crime Through City Planning”. Center for Planning and Development Research, University of California at Berkley. Berkley, US.

Government of South Australia, Department of Transport and Urban Planning, 2004  “Designing out Crime: Design Solutions for Safer Neighbourhoods”. Adelaide

Government of Western Australia, Western Australian Planning Commission 2006,  “Designing Out Crime Planning Guidelines”, Perth.

Victorian Government, Department of Sustainability and Environment and Crime Prevention Victoria, 2005 “Safer Design Guidelines for Victoria”.

Crowe, T 2000 Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design 2nd edition,  Butterworth- Heinman, Boston, US.

Felson, M. and Clarke R. V 1998 “Opportunity Makes The Thief”, Police Research Series Paper 98, Policing and Reducing Crime Unit, Home Office Research, Development and Statistics Directorate, London, UK.

Geason, S and Wilson, P R 1989 Designing Out Crime: crime prevention through environmental design, Australian Institute of Criminology. Canberra.

Jacobs, J 1961 The Death and Life of Great American Cities, Random House. New York, US.

Jeffrey, C R 1977 Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design, Sage publications. Beverly Hills, US.

Jeffrey, C R 1990 Criminology: An Interdisciplinary Approach,  Prentice-Hall. Englewood Cliffs, US.

Newman, O 1972 Defensible Space: Crime Prevention Through Urban Design, Macmillan. New York, US.

New South Wales Department of Urban Affairs and Planning 2001 “Crime prevention and the assessment of development applications”.

Office of the Deputy Prime Minister, 2004, “Safer Places, The Planning System and Crime Prevention”. OPDM. London, UK.

Robinson, M 1996, “The Theoretical Development of CPTED: Twenty-five Years of Responses to C. Ray Jeffrey”, Advances in Criminological Theory, Vol. 8.

Sarkissian Associates Planners 2000, “ACT Crime Prevention and Urban Design Resource Manual” Australian Capital Territory Department of Planning and Land Management. Canberra.

Queensland Government, Queensland Police Service, the Department of Infrastructure and Planning, the Department of Local Government, Sport and Recreation and the Department of Communities, 2007, “Crime Prevention through Environmental Design (CPTED) Guidelines for Queensland”.